USGS Bird Population Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

USGS Bird Population - Assignment Example and specialists species characteristics to determine where the Double Crested Cormorant, Great Blue Herron, Wood Stock and the American Robin belong (Mobley 12). This specie of bird is a specialist. The Double Crested Cormorant is mostly distributed along the coastal regions and water bodies like the Gulf, Pacific and the Atlantic coasts in Canada and the United States which are densely populated due to the economic activities that are carried out in these regions (Sauer 2). It is also found along the Great Lakes and Mississippi valley. Their breeding nests are usually built on top of very tall trees in areas with bodies of water; therefore, they thrive best in wetland biomes. They change their niche according to the precipitation available at a particular time mostly preferring regions with high precipitation. The Double Crested Cormorant is very specific with its diet. It mainly eats fish and this is the reason why it prefers areas near water bodies. They mostly thrive in the riparian habitats. They are widely spread in water body regions but more uniformly distributed in regions that have water masses. Their diet which mainly consists of fish gives evidence that they are specialists and not generalists (Mobley 12). This specie of birds is generalists. This is because of their wide range of distribution. Although they are mainly distributed along northern America, Mexico and southern Canada, they are more common throughout the United States apart from regions that are woody (Sauer 2). They prefer the summer as opposed to winter seasons and this is why they are mostly found in Minnesota during summer. They are found in both coniferous and deciduous forests. They can also be seen in swampy areas or areas near water bodies. In addition, they can thrive in tree habitats that are either dead or alive and also found in densely populated areas. This means that they can survive in any environmental niche be it forested, savannah or wetlands. Another major reason why

Art and Function in a T-Shirt Essay Example for Free

Art and Function in a T-Shirt Essay Defining and evaluating artistic and aesthetic value has often been a problematic task. This is because aesthetic judgements are subjective and are influenced by prevailing cultural, economic, political, and social norms. Hence, the definition of art remains a contested domain between those who believe in â€Å"high art† and the advocates of artistic and cultural relativism. (Danto 35) The difficulty in ascribing aesthetic value to objects is evident in the fact that relativism, with its focus on the individual subjective experience, would render anything and everything as artforms since humans ultimately attach meanings to objects they possess. Changes in culture and socio-economic conditions also alter and influence the very standards by which the aesthetic value of art forms and other objects are judged. For instance, in judging a t-shirt with Bob Marley’s face printed on it on the front through the use of the silkscreen method, one easily dismisses it as a non-art when judged according to the traditional notions of fine art. This is because the t-shirt and the print on it do not express artistic creativity, which is a prerequisite for objects to be considered art forms. The t-shirt and the print, which can be replicated many times over by any one with knowledge on silk screen printing, do not possess relevant canonic properties of art such as unity, complexity, and intensity which could evoke intense human experiences and therefore, aesthetic appreciation (Goldman 185). The sight of the t-shirt does not stir up feelings of beauty nor does its fabric hold anything extraordinary for the senses. The print on the t-shirt does not convey a particular style to capture attention or cause pain or pleasure, at least not in the way that beholding Picasso’s paintings evoke wonder, mystery, and other psychological sentiments arising purely from the painter’s use of style, colors, and the imagination. Likewise, the t-shirt with the print on it was created not for the purpose of being admired as an art. As such, the t-shirt is not valuable in itself but gains value for its function to humans, contrary to traditional visual and other forms of art. Art forms are valued for their artistic worth or for their ability to command a definite blending of particular perceptual and sensory elements from the audience (Goldman 188). On the other hand, subjecting the t-shirt to evaluation based on the principles of aesthetic value leads to interesting results. The t-shirt with Bob Marley’s face printed on it clearly fulfills two aesthetic principles. First, the t-shirt becomes a medium for the image of Bob Marley, a cultural icon in reggae music and in the historical struggle of Jamaicans. In this case, the t-shirt with Bob Marley’s image transcends its status as an object worn by humans to cover themselves and becomes an expression of the values of reggae and Jamaican culture in a manner similar to cultural artifacts. Second, the t-shirt itself may be valued by an individual for the sentiments attached to the shirt. It could have been given as a gift for an occasion or has been worn to events associated with feelings of happiness which make the t-shirt valuable to the individual because of the memories of joyous times spent while wearing it. Thus, other people might consider the same t-shirt aesthetically valuable. Fenner observes that objects do not have intrinsic aesthetic value; rather it is the subjective experience of humans that create aesthetic value for objects, particularly the expectation of pleasure from an object (122). Those who appreciate and know Bob Marley may value his image on the t-shirt and subsequently feel pleasure or the elevation of other feelings associated with Bob Marley’s musical contribution and historical roots. As such, the t-shirt may be appreciated by people who share a cultural affinity with Jamaica or of the counterculture that Bob Marley represents. The value of Bob Marley’s silkscreened image extends to the t-shirt which carries it and reinforces the value of the shirt for its owner. The t-shirt, donned by the owner, can therefore be considered the medium for the expression of individuality and creativity of the wearer. Wearing Bob Marley may be a political or cultural statement for a particular culture, particularly as a representation of the struggle against apartheid or against conventional popular music and the culture it represents. Hence, the appreciation of Jamaican culture or reggae music becomes another definitive aspect of the aesthetic experience that may be separate from the experiences attached to the t-shirt as an object. Likewise, neither the fact that the t-shirt was not created for the sake of art nor its low economic worth prevents it from being categorized as an art form. Fenner notes that the presence of traditional aesthetic properties do not necessarily lead to an aesthetic experience or to the creation of an aesthetic value (121). Hence, the audience can view a pricey painting without feeling any connection with it which would make the painting worthless in terms of evoking a subjective experience of appreciation for creativity or imagination. On the other hand, the same audience may behold the image on a shirt and feel an instant connection, a feeling of intense emotions from memories or meanings attached to the object of attention. It is clear that the traditional definitions of art and the accompanying distinction and stratification between â€Å"high art† and â€Å"lowbrow art† has slowly been eroded with the rise of cultural relativism and postmodern theory. Doubtless, the rigid formality of art has come under attack even within various artists’ circles itself that ascribe to the fluidity and less structured styles of postmodern culture. Thus, even an ordinary t-shirt can now be considered an art form when, after critical analysis, it is able to fulfill the principles of aesthetic value. Works Cited: Fenner, David E.W. The Aesthetic Attitude. Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities Press, 1996. Goldman, Alan. â€Å"Beardsley’s Legacy: The Theory of Aesthetic Value.† The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 63.2 (2005): 185-190.

Personnel Management (HRM) :: essays research papers

Personnel management - The renewed emphasis on the importance of human resources in the 1980s and 90s drew attention to the way in which people management was organized. Specifically, this meant a critical review of the functions of personnel management. Personnel management has been a recognized function in the USA since NCR opened a personnel office in the 1890s. In other countries the function arrived more slowly and came through a variety of routes. This excerpt from Human Resource Management in a Business Context looks at Personnel management from a historical perspective. Further notes: Traditional Personnel Functions †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Recruitment - advertising for new employees and liaising with employment agencies. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Selection - determining the best candidates from those who apply, arranging interviews, tests, references. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Promotion - running similar selection procedures to determine progression within the organization. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Pay - a minor or major role in pay negotiation, determination and administration. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Performance assessment - co-ordinating staff appraisal and counselling systems to evaluate individual employee performance. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Grading structures - as a basis for pay or development, comparing the relative difficulty and importance of functions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Training and development - co-ordinating or delivering programmes to fit people for the roles required by the organisation now and in the future. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Welfare - providing or liaising with specialists in a staff care or counselling role for people with personal or domestic problems affecting their work. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Communication - providing internal information service, perhaps in the form of staff newspapers or magazines, handouts, booklets, videos. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Employee Relations - handling disputes, grievances and industrial action, often dealing with unions or staff representatives. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dismissal - on an individual basis as a result of failure to meet requirements or as part of a redundancy, downsizing or closure exercise, perhaps involving large numbers of people. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Personnel administration - record-keeping and monitoring of legislative requirements related to equal opportunities and possibly pensions and tax. Personnel Management Personnel management has been a recognised function in the USA since NCR opened a personnel office in the 1890s. American personnel managers worked within a unitarist tradition, identifying closely with the objectives of their organization (key concept 1.3). It was natural for HRM to emerge comparatively smoothly from this perspective. In other countries, notably Australia, South Africa and the UK, the personnel management function arrived more slowly and came from a number of routes. Moreover, its orientation was not entirely managerial. In Britain its origins can be traced to the 'welfare officers' employed by Quaker-owned companies such as Cadburys.

1994 Rwandan Genocide Essay

The 1994 Rwandan Genocide impacted on a lot of people in a lot of different ways. In this essay the causes I will be covering are ethnic tension as a result of Belgium Colonisation, Propaganda and hate rhetoric, the role of the international community, and political problems. The consequences I will be covering are causalities, the economic effects, remembrance and education, and population displacement. In this small country in Africa called Rwanda this terrible killing took place. The Rwandan Genocide began on April 6th 1994 when the president was assassinated, followed by the prime minster the next day. It lasted 100 days, â€Å"100 days of slaughter† ending on the 18th of July 1994. The genocide included many groups. The perpetrators were – Hutu civilians, Hutu army, Interhamwe-the youth of Hutu organised into an extremist militia, and radio RTLM-a radio station announcing to kill all Tutsis. Victims included – Tutsi, Hutu political moderates for example prime minster AgatheUwilingiyimana. Other groups include – RPF (Rwandan Patriotic Front). President Juvenal Habyarimana who was in charge if the Hutu government, and the international community for example the UN (United Nations) Peacekeepers. During these 100 days of slaughter hundreds of thousands of Tutsi we killed. Women and girls we raped, and many tortured by having their breast chopped off and sharp objects inserted into their vaginas. Many people tried to hind in schools and churches but were found and executed. I have just written about the context and the course of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. I am now going to write the causes of this horrific event starting with ethnic tension as a result of Belgium Colonisation. Ethnic tension as a result of Belgium Colonisation is arguably the biggest cause in the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. It is a political and social cause that happened over a long period of time. Starting in 1860 and coming right down to 1926. In 1860 the first Tutsi king was appointed. In 1884 German explorer Carl Peters enters the Rwandan kingdom and obtains treaty rights. In 1885 Germany declares a protectorate over present-day Rwanda. In 1890 Rwanda accepts German colonial rule with resistance. A German territorial administrator is not appointed until 1907. In 1916 WW1 Belgium Allied Forces capture German East Africa. In 1924 Great Britten assumes control over Tanzania, while Belgium is granted trusteeship over Rwanda and Burundi. Belgium Colonisation begins. In 1926 Rwandans were given an identity card showing if a person was Hutu, Tutsi or Twa. Prior to colonisation people could ‘jump’ races e. g. Hutu’s could become Tutsi’s. Callipers were the tools of colonisation. The size of the cranium and nose and the colour of the eyes were the factors that determined whether a person was a Hutu, Tutsi or Twa. The result of the unfair system was – Tutsi could have government positions, be landlords, be supervisors of Hutu, collect taxes, get an education (only Tutsi could go to school after the colonisation), be an administrator for the justice system. Hutu were denied higher education, land ownership and positions in government. The identity cards that everyone was given were very clear they had what ethnic group they were from, their place of birth, their date of birth, their profession, their place of residence, the name of their spouse, their C. I number, and their signature. A quote form chief prosecutor of the international Rwandan court sums up this cause well â€Å"European colonial history was a major contributor to what eventually became the genocide in Rwanda†. The second cause I am going to discuss is Propaganda and hate rhetoric. This is a social Cause; it is short term because it happened quite fast after the death of the president and prime minster. Kangura Newspaper was a newspaper about how discussing the Tutsis were, this was launched by first lady AgatheHabyarimana in 1990. Kangura means wake them up in English. In the newspaper they had racist comments such as â€Å"They look like animals, actually they are animals†, â€Å"If you allow snakes to live amongst you, you will be exterminated†, â€Å"They look hideous with their bushy hair and beards that are full of fleas†. RTLM (Radio Television des Milles Collines) or commonly known as â€Å"Hate Radio†, used good rock music to get people to listen to it then they used in to convey hateful messages such as â€Å"cut down the tall trees† this meant for all Hutu extremists to wipe out the Tutsis. RTLM often referred to Tutsi as cockroaches. In 1990 Kangura newspaper published the 10 commandments for the Hutus they were an extended version of 1, Every Hutu must know that the Tutsi woman is working for the Tutsi ethnic cause Hutu is a traitor who a) Acquires a Tutsi wife, b)Acquires a Tutsi concubine, c) Acquires a Tutsi sectary or protegee. 2, Every Hutu must know that our Hutu daughters are more worthy and more conscientious as a woman, as wives and as mothers. 3, Hutu women, be vigilant and make sure that your husbands, brothers and sons see reason. , All Hutus must know that all Tutsis are dishonest in business. We have learned this from experience from experience. Hutu is a traitor who a) forms a business alliance with a Tutsi, b) invests in own funds/public funds in a Tutsi enterprise, c) Borrows money from/loans money to a Tutsi, d) Grants favours to Tutsis. 5, Strategic positions such as politics, administration, economics the military and security must be restricted to Hutu. 6, A Hutu majority must prevail throughout the education system. 7. The Rwandan Army must be exclusively Hutu. No Solider may marry Tutsi women. 8, Hutu must stop taking pity on the Tutsi. 9, Hutu wherever they are must stand united, in solidarity, and concerned with the fate of their Hutu brothers. Hutu must constantly counter Tutsi propaganda. Hutu must stand firm and vigilant against their common enemy. The Tutsi. 10, The social Revolution of 1959, the Referendum of 1961 and the Hutu Ideology must be taught to Hutu of every age. Hutu must spread the word. Any Hutu who persecutes his brother Hutu for spreading the word and teaching this ideology is a traitor. A quote from Leon Mugesera sums up this cause â€Å"The fatal mistake we made in 1959 was to let them escape †¦ they are foreigners from Ethiopia so we will send them by the shortest route throwing them into the Nagbarongo river. We must act. Wipe them all out†. The third cause I am going to discuss is the role of the international community; it is a political cause that is a short term because it became an issue soon after the colonisation. During this cause the world just stood by and watched. Following WW11 and the Holocaust, The United Nations adopted a resolution on December 9, 1948, which stated â€Å"genocide, whether committed in time of peace or time of war, is a crime under international law which they undertake to prevent and to punish†. There were two opportunities to intervene that were missed. In October 1993 The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda began with the deployment of 21 troops under the command of Brigadier – General Romeo Allaire of Canada. Additional troops continued o arrive until February 1994, when the mission was fully staffed with 25,000 personnel. Many soldiers arrived without weapons, food or water; vehicles and radios were sent out second hand from other missions and rarely in working condition. On 11th January 1994 Officers were stockpiling weapons and training civilian militias; the level of preparedness would enable the murder of 1000 Tutsis every 20 minutes. This saying will finish off this cause nicely, â€Å"clearly, the massacres in Rwanda constituted genocide, so why didn’t the world steep into stop it? In my fourth and final cause I’m going to discuss political problems (the role of the Hutu extremists in the Habyarimana government and the catalyst). This is a political cause which was short term. President Juvenal Habyarimana came to power through a military coup in 1973. He promised national unity. By 1994 many Rwandans were calling for democratic government. In January 1994 in spite of increased state oppression and the French-supported up-build of armed forces, 50,000 Rwandans marched in a pro-democracy demonstration in Kigali. The build-up to the Hutu’s wanting power is over quite a short period of time†¦ only 3 years! In October 1990 civil war started when the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a militia of Rwandan Tutsi excels and Hutu dissidents based in Uganda, invaded Rwanda. Thousands of Tutsis were arrested. In 1991 RPF military victories pressured President Habyarimana into drafting a new multi-party constitution. In 1992 UN led peace talks led between the RPF, The Rwanda government and 12 opposition parties to try and achieve a power-sharing agreement. In August 1993 Arusha Peace Accords were signed to neutral Tanzania. Hutu Power’ started broadcasting Tutsi hate messages in the media. In 1993 A Hutu Power Party no participating in the government established Radio/TV Libre de Millie Collines (RTLM) to get round the Arusha agreements explicit prohibition on government sponsored hate speech. I has been believed that the ‘final nail in coffin’ was the assignation of P resi dent Habyarimana. At 8. 30p. m on April 6, 1994, President Juvenal Habyarimana of Rwanda was returning from a summit in Tanzania where, under international pressure, he was negotiating with the opposition to reach a settlement. A surface-to-air missile shot the plane out of the sky. All on board were killed. I have just written about the causes of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, I am now going to write about the consequences of the ‘100 days of slaughter’. Starting with causalities. The 1994 Rwandan Genocide left behind some major consequences but beyond all others the biggest is the casualties. This is a political, social and ideological cause and is most defiantly immediate timing because it happened during genocide obviously; so many people were left both physically and mentally scared. Over the course of 100 days from April 6 – July 16 1994 it is estimated 800,000 – 1 million Tutsi and some moderate Hutu were slaughtered. The UN estimated 800,000 but the Rwandan government has estimated 1,071,000. It’s very difficult to get exact numbers because these numbers do not include people who were thrown into river/lakes and those who were burnt. Mass graves held up to 50,000 making it even harder to count exact numbers. If the numbers of Tutsis living in Rwanda before and after the genocide are correct then 77% of the Tutsi population was wiped out. 8,640 per day; 360 per hour, 6 per minute. If this is correct this is the equation 6 people x 60 minutes x 24 hours x 100 days = 864,000 people! There is between 300,000 to 400,000 survivors. Almost 50,000 women were left without husbands. Almost 100,000 of the survivors were aged between 14 and 21. 75,000 of the survivors were orphaned. A 1999 study showed 80% of women surveyed showed signs of trauma. Many face health problems such as HIV/AIDS as a direct act of violence during the genocide. Some of the survivors are still threatened with violence, attacked or killed by former perpetrators. Almost all women and girls that survived were raped, many also tortured and mutilated by having their breasts cut off and sharp objects being inserted into their vaginas. Numbers of women and girls raped are somewhere between 250,000 and 500,000 exact numbers are not known. Children of rape during the genocide numbers are 2,000 to 5,000 children. Most children show trauma and signs of neglect. More than 67% of women raped were infected with HIV/AIDS. Men with HIV/AIDS used it as a weapon to leave their mark on Tutsi women and their families. To sum up the consequence what the presiding judge said after the verdict â€Å"From time immemorial, rape has been regarded as spoils of war. Now it will be considered a war crime. We want to send out a strong message that rape is no longer a trophy of war†. In the second consequence, I am going to discuss the economic effects. This is an economic consequence and it is immediate because the things that happened during left people with big struggles. The Rwandan government has struggled to rebuild the economy. In the year of the genocide, growth slumped by 50% and inflation reached 64%. Almost two thirds of the 8. million population live below the poverty line. Coffee is Rwandans major export. Rwanda exported 14,000 tonnes in 1986. The positives of the economic problems were the exiled business leaders returning home, since the genocide in 1994 business leaders have been returning home from Burundi, Congo, Uganda and Tanzania. Desire Kamanzi’s father sold his three houses in Burundi to return to Rwanda. This was no unusual. To sum up this consequence a quote from Leon Haguma, acting director of coffee marketing â€Å"All was abandoned, they were dead or had fled the country, there was nobody to work the plantations†. In the third consequence, I am going to discuss remembrance and education. This is a social consequence because most of Rwanda have contributed in some way. It is a long term consequence because it still goes on today and the world can’t see it stopping anytime soon. The focus of remembrance is to teach the history of the 1994 Rwandan Genocide and emphasise moral values. There are many memorial sites in Rwanda, which pays tribute to the hundreds of thousands killed. Marimba Technical School, where many victims were killed and still remain as a museum. Other ways of remembrance is art and photos taken in tribute such as people standing in a line with other people laying in front making human words saying END GENOCIDE NOW! There is also a national day of reflection in Rwanda on April 7th. To sum up this consequence a quote from Kofi Annan general of the UN in 1994, â€Å"If the pictures of tens of thousands of human bodies being gnawed on by dogs do not wake us out of our apathy, I do not know what will†. The fourth and final consequence I am going to write about population displacement. This is a political and social consequence because the government feel through and society took over. This is a short term consequence because lots of people started to come back into Rwanda once the genocide was over. The 1994 Rwandan Genocide resulted in massive exodus of refugees to bordering countries. Another one million people remained internally displaced in Rwanda itself. Millions of Hutu and displaced Tutsi had crowded refugee camps beyond the Rwandan boarders. International relief efforts were mobilised to care for refugees, but available supplies were inadequate and outbreaks of disease were widespread. More than 20,000 refugees died in cholera epidemic. During the genocide Tutsi and Hutu moderates fled. From April 1994 Tutsi and Hutu moderate refugees poured out of Rwanda and into neighbouring countries. After the genocide Tutsi refugees returned. In July 1994 when the seize fire was called Tutsis began to return to Rwanda, including refugees who had fled in the 1960’s. Hutu perpetrators fled the country. Genocide only ended when the RPF eventually defeated the Rwandan government’s armies and took control of the country. Retaliatory violence by Tutsis caused thousands of lives. By mid July, and estimated 2 million Hutu perpetrators and bystanders had fled. 850,000 refugees entered the area in just 4 days. During the influx, 15,000 refugees an hour crossed the Rwanda-Zaire boarder. The camps became like countries in exile for the Hutu extremists who used members of the Hutu army to maintain control of the refugee camps. Between July and November 1996 the refugee camps were shut down. One million exiles returned to Rwanda including tens of thousands of perpetrators who had been living side by side with Tutsi in the refugee camps. In November 1996 more than 600,000 Hutu refugees returned to Rwanda from Zaire. In December 500,000 returned from Tanzania. In summery†¦ Ironically, both Hutu perpetrators and Tutsi and Hutu moderate victims ended up in the same camps. In conclusion the causes I have just written about were the ethnic tension as a result of Belgium Colonisation, Propaganda and hate rhetoric, the role of the international community, political problems. The consequences I have just written about were the casualties, the economic effects, remembrance and education, and population displacement. All of these were major events that happened before, during and after the 1994 Rwanda Genocide there were also a number of other causes and consequences, causes are economic problems, and independence problems. The consequences were political effects, apologies from the international community, and justice, responsibility & reconciliation. A quote to sum up the 1994 Rwandan Genocide is, â€Å"The Rwandan Genocide is perhaps the most horrible and systematic human massacre we have had to witness since the extermination of the Jews by the Nazis†.

Conflient

In the text, the authors state, â€Å"collusion occurs when two or more people ‘agree’ subconsciously to ignore or deny some existing state of affairs or situation† (p. 44). This is somewhat different than another definition of collusion from the investments industry (where collusion signifies insider trading between parties, which is illegal and immoral). In our â€Å"conflict† definition of collusion, we are signifying a state of affairs where people do not recognize a reality that is readily apparent to other people.This can take an unlimited amount of forms. For example, in a family setting, the larger family may â€Å"subconsciously agree† to avoid discussing or helping another family member with a substance abuse problem. In a workplace setting, a top-performing employee may have an infectiously negative attitude and regularly degrade co-workers through verbal aggressiveness. In these scenarios, the reality that is obvious is overlooked because it is either perceived as â€Å"easier† to ignore the real problem or because of power or status issues.When collusion occurs, a conflict (which may have begun as a relatively minor issue) can grow into a â€Å"life of its own†. The conflict then becomes part of a person’s identity and is continued subconsciously to benefit that identity. So for instance, the negative and verbally aggressive co-worker may develop some type of â€Å"accepted identity†. For example, people may say, â€Å"oh, that is Pat just being Pat†. This type of identity is then used to hide away the problem that is subconsciously avoided. QUESTION #2 Staw, Sandelands, and Dutton's threat-rigidity cycle is explored in the text on pp. 6-70. The cycle works in this order. First, when individuals feel threatened, they experience and increase in stress and anxiety. Second, this increased stress and anxiety fosters emotional reactions like fear, anger, and physiological arousal. Thir d, these emotional reactions result in restricted information processing (i. e. , an inability to view the situation at hand in a composed manner) and constriction of behavior (i. e. , we are unable to process a full range of appropriate behaviors mentally due to our emotions taking over).As we discussed in Chapter 2, we are essentially   â€Å"flooded† with emotion, often leading to some type of knee-jerk reaction that in turn leads us to rely on our hastily made (and often incorrect) attributions. Now, the threat-rigidity cycle can take two different routes. First, if habitual responses (e. g. , verbally attacking the other person, avoiding the situation, stonewalling in silence, etc. ) do happen to be appropriate, the results will be positive and we are more prone to rely on this habitual response in the future.Conversely, if the habitual response is inappropriate, the situation will consequently worsen and the perception of threat, stress, and anxiety cycles back all ov er again (i. e. , we return to the first stage, thus the â€Å"cycle†). Because the threat-rigidity cycle underscores our tendency to fall back on habitual responses and attributions when confronted with a threatening situation we do consider these as â€Å"trained incapacities† (see pp. 68-69). Trained incapacities are important because we become so well trained (subconsciously) in our knee-jerk reactions that we believe we understand what is coming next in the conflict.Human beings famously believe that we can â€Å"predict† others behavior, but in reality, we are really bad at it. So what happens is that we become â€Å"blind† to the nuances of a particular conflict situation (often due to the emotional flooding cited above) and then rely on our â€Å"standard reaction† (i. e. , our trained incapacity) that we apply it whenever we are upset. This makes trained incapacities hard to detect, and in turn makes trained incapacities a very important a spect of behavior to understand, both for ourselves and for others. QUESTION #3The confrontation episodes theory outlined on pp. 29-31 is a good guide in many situations for us to go through a â€Å"sense making† process regarding conflicts. Of course, if it was fail-proof, we wouldn’t need the rest of this course. The theory, in general, explores co-created rules of conduct that are implied in relationships (i. e. , our generally agreed upon â€Å"rules of engagement†). My hope here is that you are able to frame a conflict that you have had in a meaningful way with this guide. Naturally, it will be enlightening for many of you or give you a new perspective.Conversely, it may already inform some of you as to what you already know or may serve as reinforcement that you â€Å" did things right† in a conflict. I won’t rehash the terms that were in the guide in each step, but I do want to acknowledge the vital importance of understanding the options we are left with at the end. First, reaffirmation is a good outcome because the parties reaffirm importance of rule being questioned (but as a side note, may simply do this to â€Å"avoid conflicts†. On the other hand, an outcome with no resolution leads us toward a path where conflict is continued and may expand.Legislation and reaffirmation may serve as the two most positive outcomes, in my estimation. I say this because in legislation, parties rework or reinterpret the rule in question, coming to a shared, agreed upon meaning for the rule. Also, in reaffirmation the parties reaffirm importance of rule that is being challenged. This then provides a clear understanding (hopefully) of what that rule entails. This is a classic example of why conflict is often good, as it serves as an opportunity to clear the air about simple misunderstandings that can fester into giant problems rapidly. QUESTION #4Central to this question are attribution processes; my overall goal with this ques tion was to see how well you could explain the interactions of these processes as they relate to conflict. Overall, these processes included how dispositional or situational factors are used by people to draw conclusions about their own behaviors and the behaviors of others, the fundamental attribution error, and the self-serving bias (beginning on p. 61 through the middle of p. 62). Then, beginning at the bottom of p. 62, Sillars notes that attributions influence conflict in at least three major ways.First, due to the self-serving bias, people are more likely to attribute negative effects of conflict to partners rather than to themselves. This heightens resentment of others as negative effects increase, leading to distributive strategies that are damaging to conflicts. Second, again because of the use of a self-serving bias, people often think they use integrative strategies while others use distributive or avoidance tactics. This leads people to believe they are doing more to reso lve the conflict than others are, while this may not actually be true in reality.Third, the fundamental attribution error heightens conflict by encouraging people to see others behavior as planned and intentional (negative attribute) and their own behavior as driven by the situation at hand (positive attribute). In short, we believe act socially desirable in conflict and others act in more negative ways, based on these attribution concepts. It is also vital to note that the self-serving bias and fundamental attribution error are impacted by perceptions of other people’s gender, ethnicity, or other demographic traits and that these two elements are also evident in our relationships with people we already know well (i. . , like the adage that suggests people are often â€Å"well informed and well biased†). Lastly, on p. 64, the authors summarize three propositions in this area of research regarding conflict: (1) people choose conflict strategies based on the attributions they make regarding the cause of the conflict, (2) biases in attribution processes tend to lead to noncooperative modes of conflict, and (3) the choice of conflict strategies influences the likelihood of conflict resolution and the degree of satisfaction with the overall relationship.The correct answer here is really more of a judgment of how well I felt you described the associated concepts and findings above more so than a judgment of whether or not each and every piece of information above was provided in your response. QUESTION #5 This response is fairly cut-and-dried, if you will. The procedure I was looking at here is in Exhibit 4. 1 (pp. 128-131). In your response, I was hoping to see a full discussion each of the 5 â€Å"questions† as they related to your example than a quick rundown of the selections you made.The answer to each question then guides you along the model, ultimately leading to a â€Å"recommended† or â€Å"prescribed† conflict style. So i n reality, this response had dozens of â€Å"correct responses† based on where the style selection tree led you to. Lastly, I was looking for you to evaluate the quality of the style (or styles for some of you) that you were guided to in your example. Would it have worked out in your estimation? Did you try that style (without knowing this information, of course)? QUESTION #6After a fairly thorough discussion of conflict styles in Chapter 4 of the text, the authors describe pairings of conflict styles and how they interact with one another (section 4. 5 on pp. 123-124). They noted, that some conflict style pairings are â€Å" asymmetrical patterns† that did not match each other, such as a demand (compete) / withdraw (avoidance) pattern,   a supervisor / subordinate pattern at work, or a competing / collaborating pattern (which interestingly has great potential to work well together).While at first many of these styles seem â€Å"unhealthy†, leading us to belie ve they are unstable, some are actually quite stable in the short term (e. g. , one dominant role/one submissive role). Although it is noted that these roles may not always be stable in long run due to unhappiness among the submissive individual. Likewise, examples of â€Å"asymmetrical patterns† were also noted, which we often believe are stable because of â€Å"agreement† among the individuals.For instance, a relationship often has two â€Å" avoiders† that facilitate conflict denial/collusion, two collaborators that are more productive, but are not perfect, or two â€Å"competers† that often reinforce a cycle of escalating conflict or reach a stalemate. What we can see from both symmetrical and asymmetrical patterns is that both types of patterns can be either healthy or unhealthy based on the context in which they occur or the type of pattern being used; in other words, the pairing of styles is not a way to determine the health of a relationship.Symme trical patterns of two competers may be great as workout partners, but bad as romantic partners. As many of us know, a competer and an avoider often work poorly because of the attack/withdrawal pattern, but a competer and a collaborator may work out wonderfully because the book notes how competers (that openly air out concerns) give collaborators tools to work with to find a â€Å"win/win† solution in many cases. QUESTION #7 This final question provided an applied conflict management scenario that revolved around the use of reframing/issue framing tactics in the textbook (p. 9 through p. 92). Just to be clear, the discussion of framing in Ch. 2 (pp. 57-59) is secondary for this question and was not the intended area of focus. In other words, I am seeking explicit reframing/issue framing tactics that would help to resolve the issue at hand (pp. 91-92). That is not to say the definition and discussion of framing in Ch. 2 is not important; in fact it is vital to acknowledge that conflict frames are a â€Å"cognitive structure based on previous experience, which guides our interpretation of an interaction or event† (p. 57).So in other words, framing provides the perceptual framework for how we view the conflict itself and the people involved. This is precisely why I created two groups of people in this fictional question that are affiliated with very different â€Å"organizational in-groups†; so it is expected that the accountant and sales person will have very (or use) different â€Å"frames†, based on what is happening. So this creates a scenario where we must â€Å"reframe† to be able to get anywhere in a conflict setting, otherwise we will constantly run into the issue of two people working in two different frames.Reframing/issue framing tactics are then a part of a â€Å"dance† (p. 90 – top). Because each reframing/issue framing tactic will likely produce a different outcome, there is more than one â€Å"right answer† here. To be clearer, a correct answer here is one that explains a reframing/issue framing tactic and reasonably explains why that tactic would make sense to use to manage the conflict in the hypothetical scenario. With that being said, here a few thoughts that I had regarding each reframing approach.Umbrellas: This approach would seem to work poorly here, as the sales staff member already believes the accountant is using this tactic (i. e. , sales person believes the accountant is jealous and is using this â€Å"petty† thing to air jealousy) Issue Expansion: This is an interesting approach overall; it is high-risk, high-reward in nature. Given the status of the growing in-group nature of the conflict, I would think the issue expansion approach may actually serve to drive a deeper wedge between the sales staff and the accounting department.I am open to different interpretations, but this appears to be the most likely outcome. Negative Inquiry: This may provide s ome traction toward conflict resolution. For example, if the sales staff member is convinced the accountant is jealous of their success, perhaps they need to expand on that thought as it is very vague. Also, it could be asked why the sales staff avoided phone and email communication. It may have simply been a case of having a viable excuse for not replying rapidly, instead of the accounting departments’ perception of ignorance/avoidance.Likewise, the sales staff could ask why did you â€Å"call out† someone in a face-damaging way? The answers here may get the two groups and the two main conflict parties on the right path. Fogging: On one hand, fogging may be dysfunctional as it opens up the door for avoidance issues. However, it also may create a situation where the two parties and the two in-groups can simply work towards the issues that relate to company policy here. Conflict is rarely â€Å"forgotten†, but if the accounting department and sales staff find a w ay to change the protocol to allow for a smooth work environment, time may heal some of the wounds.Fractionation: Although more than one approach can be right here, as I care more about the way you apply a solution to the problem, fractionation jumps out as the most helpful tactic at first glance. Here, both the accountant and the sales person (or their entire departments) may be able to break down the larger issues into fractioned pieces to address individually. So this means instead of looking at the big issue (inter-group conflict between sales staff and accounting department), the parties would look at each component.One thing the book does not mention, and this is generally true of all â€Å" textbook† conflict resolution tactics, is that fractionation would probably be very time consuming (especially if you are talking about long-standing, deeply ingrained conflicts). However, this is sometimes the only way to put conflicts to rest; which is something that should be ver y appealing for two departments in an organization that really need to cooperate with each other. The long term gains would seem to outweigh the short-term productivity losses.